(In)Equity in Aging: A Critique of Healthcare Access and Delivery Related to LGBT Elders and Opportunities for Reducing Disparities – Karey Kenst

The last century has seen a twelve-fold increase in the elder population in the United States, and as this population increases, a growing number of people age 65 and older are in need of services to maintain and promote health and well-being (1). Although there is an abundance of data related to older adults in general, there remains a dearth of information on one of the most vulnerable subsets of this population: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) elders. Much of what we do know about LGBT seniors’ unique health care needs lacks a quantitative evidence base and is extrapolated from research with limited sample sizes (1). As a result, disparities persist with regard to access to and delivery of appropriate health care for this underserved and traditionally marginalized population.

Despite limited national data on LGBT populations in general and LGBT elders in particular, it is estimated that there will be between 2 million and 7 million LGBT elders in the United States by 2030 (1). LGBT elders commonly contend with ageism, homophobia, transphobia, and heterosexism. Because LGBT people represent a diversity of racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, gender, and other groups, the barriers to care they face are undoubtedly compounded by health disparities associated with other underserved groups to which they may belong (2). According to the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, “[L]ifelong experiences of social and economic marginalization place [LGBT] elders at higher risk for isolation, poverty and homelessness than their heterosexual peers” (1). Much of the research on LGBT seniors’ health care has been undertaken by LGBT organizations, social work professionals, and gerontological researchers and indicates that LGBT elders are at increased risk for abuse, depression, and inadequate or inappropriate treatment by health professionals (1). Although the federal government’s Healthy People 2010 campaign failed to systematically research or track issues related to LGBT populations, it does acknowledge that LGBT people are at increased risk of a wide variety of physical and mental health-related vulnerabilities (2). LGBT elders face unequal access to appropriate health care due to a number of factors, including (though not limited to) the historical pathologization of homosexuals and transgender people by the medical establishment, widespread discrimination against sexual and gender minorities, lack of cultural sensitivity and professional competency among health care providers, denial of civil rights, lack of legal benefits and protections afforded to their heterosexual and non-transgender peers, and internalized homophobia and/or transphobia resulting from many of these factors (1, 3). A recent study of lesbian and gay male baby boomers revealed that less than half are strongly confident that health care professionals will treat them with dignity and respect, and 12% had no confidence at all that they would be treated with respect (4). It is also estimated that at least 39% of transgender people are harassed or discriminated against when seeking routine care (5). These factors lead many LGBT elders to withhold information about sexual orientation and/or gender identity that may affect the quality of their health care, to go back into “the closet” as they age, or to avoid seeking care altogether (6, 7). These disparities are reflected in the fact that adult sexual minority populations have significantly higher chronic disease risk factors than their heterosexual counterparts (8).

As the LGBT elder population grows, it is critical to address the issues of access and delivery of appropriate care for this population. However, the current healthcare system in the U.S. has failed to meet this need. This paper provides a critique of the health system’s approach to LGBT elder care, highlighting three ways in which the system fails to meet the needs of LGBT elders and exploring alternative methods for effectively reducing disparities in care.

Assumptions Underlying the Health Belief Model Perpetuate Health Disparities

The current healthcare system in the United States relies on individual motivation rather than proactively supporting people across the lifespan to obtain the preventive, curative, and other health services they need. Little emphasis is placed on understanding the barriers to seeking care that marginalized populations face. As a result, insufficient resources are mobilized for outreach and other measures to ensure that LGBT elders who need care actually receive it. In many ways, this system reflects the key tenets of the health belief model, one of the most pervasive models used in determining what motivates individual behavior and action with regard to health care (9). The health belief model presupposes that individuals make decisions about health-related factors on the basis of a rational cost benefit analysis, taking into account their susceptibility to a negative health outcome and the severity of that outcome (9, 10). Simply put, if LGBT elders perceive that they are in need of health care, they will seek it out. This view is among the most fundamental yet overlooked issues plaguing the healthcare system when it comes to LGBT elder care. The model assumes that peoples’ intentions are what drive behavior and that if people perceive their health risks to be high, they will take the necessary steps to reduce that risk. In the case of LGBT elder health care, the model fails to address external factors that likely influence health-related behaviors. Irwin M. Rosenstock himself, who is credited with developing the health belief model, states that, “[T]he potential value of the model would be greatly enhanced if…beliefs were placed within a broader theoretical framework that would account for responses to a wide variety of stimuli” (11). The current approach to health care may reach populations who experience and perceive less risk and fewer barriers to care but does an inadequate job of addressing issues related to access and appropriateness of care for underserved and/or marginalized populations. The approach ignores both historical and present-day discrimination against LGBT seniors that is often at the root of personal beliefs about accessing care in this population. Through its emphasis on rational decision-making, it ignores the complex array of determinants that influence individuals, including social, economic, and environmental factors that drive health behavior (10). This is a dangerous oversimplification of the real drivers of behavior among LGBT elders with regard to accessing health care services.

Whether consciously or not, the healthcare system in the United States reflects the values and assumptions that underlie the health belief model and other individual-level models of health behavior. A health belief model approach relies on individual agency and risk taking in accessing care, placing the burden of overcoming complex barriers to care on the individual rather than demanding more appropriate services and protections be built into the system as a whole. As a result, significant attitudinal and behavioral shifts among health care providers would be required in order to first recognize the problem of health disparities among LGBT elders and then seek ways to become more culturally competent in working with them. It is unreasonable to assume that this wide-spread shift will take place on a provider to provider basis, as much of the discrimination that keeps LGBT elders from accessing care lies with providers themselves.

In failing to recognize the multitude of contextual and cultural factors that contribute to behavior, the health belief model is insufficient for understanding health-related behaviors and barriers to care among LGBT elders. In her feminist critique of the health belief model, Thomas rightly highlights “the model’s inability to allow for the inclusion of the relationship between health status and historical, social, and political structures” (12). The health belief model falls short when it comes to understanding the choices that populations experiencing health inequities make with regard to accessing and using health care services. For older LGBT individuals, the risks associated with accessing care may be more salient drivers of behavior than perceived susceptibility or severity of a particular health concern.

The Power of Labeling is Overlooked by the Healthcare System

A key flaw of the healthcare system with regard to LGBT elders is that it systematically denies the opportunity to self-label as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or a range of other identities associated with sexual orientation and gender identity. In general terms, labeling theory posits that labels and stereotypes have the potential to influence how individuals behave (13). Labeling LGBT identity as deviant has had far-reaching consequences for the health of LGBT populations throughout history. In addition, mislabeling LGBT elders as heterosexual, not allowing them to self-label, or misunderstanding or invalidating the labels they use can have a profound negative impact on both physical and mental health (14, 15). Ignoring the salience of labeling for LGBT populations in any or all of these ways results in barriers to accessing and receiving appropriate care. Like many other institutions in the United Sates, the system of healthcare is gender- and heteronormative and does not pay due attention to the existence and differential needs of LGBT populations. Many of the systems and services provided are based on the assumption that patients fall within the heterosexual majority. For example, many of the health forms that patients are required to fill out do not ask appropriate questions regarding sexual orientation and gender identity but rather assume heterosexuality and a gender binary as the “natural” norm. Even in cases where appropriate questions are included on forms, health care providers may not acknowledge this information and may continue to make assumptions when working with patients. In the case of LGBT elders, these problems are compounded by ageist assumptions that older people are not sexual beings or that the salience of sexual identity decreases with age (1, 16). All of these factors contribute to the invisibility of LGBT seniors in the healthcare system (7). The negative impact of this cannot be overstated. When the importance of labeling is overlooked, LGBT elders are often forced to hide their sexual and/or gender identity from their provider(s), which can result in inappropriate care and/or increased levels of fear and anxiety regarding the patient-provider relationship (7). It may also cause LGBT elders who have been out for years to retreat back into the closet, while others still may refuse to seek needed care altogether. When LGBT elders are labeled by health care providers, this can also diminish their sense of self-efficacy and control over their own lives and the medical attention they receive. Finally, when deprived of the right to self-identify, an important part of LGBT elders’ identity – one that is inextricably tied to overall health and well-being – is denied and invalidated.

Inadequate Emphasis on Safety Furthers Health Inequities

Yet another flaw in the way that health care is provided for LGBT elders is that the hierarchy of needs is not adequately considered in relation to this population. Abraham Maslow identified five basic needs that humans seek to fulfill: physiological needs, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization (17). The lower order needs must be reasonably satisfied before an individual recognizes and seeks to fulfill higher order needs. Chief among the lower order needs is safety. According to Maslow, if this need is not met, safety will be “a strong determinant not only of [a person’s] current world outlook, but also of [one’s] philosophy of the future. Practically everything looks less important than safety, (even sometimes the physiological needs…)” (17). A lack of actual and perceived safety in accessing health care may well explain the reluctance of many LGBT elders to disclose important information related to sexual orientation and/or gender identity, as well as reluctance to seek both short- and long-term care within the medical system as they age. Although elders be aware of the need for preventive and other services and desire to seek them out, they may fail to do so if they do not feel safe from negative judgment, discrimination, and physical or psychological harm.

In seeking to fulfill the need for safety, LGBT people have “formed communities that bridge their many differences. These communities have provided safe spaces, developed norms and values, and created institutions where LGBT identities and relationships can be acknowledged and respected” (18). Many LGBT elders prefer to rely on non-relatives, or “families of choice,” to help them meet their health care needs later in life. The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force states that, “LGBT elders report an almost universal fear and anxiety of care provision by strangers in assisted living and nursing care settings” (1). As long as the healthcare system fails to create safe spaces, structures, systems, and practices necessary for LGBT seniors to access care, their lower order need for safety will continue to be neglected, perpetuating mistrust of the medical system as a whole. And as long as LGBT elders are deprived of safety in their experiences with the health care system, they will be prevented from fully achieving the higher order needs that allow them to realize their full potential in the final stages of life.

These key failings of the current healthcare system create gaps in equal access to and delivery of healthcare for LGBT elders. These gaps present a unique opportunity for the medical and public health communities to affect systemic changes in the health care and quality of life of the aging LGBT population.

Create a Media Campaign Targeting Health Care Providers

As described above, the current healthcare system in the U.S. reflects the underlying assumptions of the health belief model. This model fails to take into account the sociocultural and other contextual factors that motivate health behavior among LGBT elders. It encourages health care professionals to continue providing care on a “business as usual” basis. Reframing and publicizing the issue of unequal access and delivery of care for LGBT elders could encourage providers to change the way they approach provision of health care services. Traditional public health approaches have relied on the assumption that increasing knowledge on a given issue will lead to subsequent changes in attitudes and behaviors. However, simply knowing that LGBT elders face inequalities in the healthcare system may not be enough to motivate providers to alter their attitudes and behaviors in treating this population, particularly when providers themselves are often the source of negative attitudes and stereotypes about LGBT people. Reframing the issue and drawing on theories and concepts that have proven to be effective in influencing social and behavioral changes may lead to more immediate improvements in providers’ work with LGBT seniors. Rather than attempt to shame health care professionals into providing better quality care for older LGBT people, we need to reframe the issue of LGBT elder care so that it captures the attention of providers and motivates them to engage with the issue.

Advertising theory can be employed in the creation of a media campaign that speaks more directly to the core values of health care providers. For example, instead of negative messages that emphasize the insufficiencies and discrimination surrounding LGBT elder care, advertisements that feature stirring images of older individuals may speak to providers’ desire and professional commitment to deliver the best possible care to each patient. Similarity can be invoked by depicting elders in a way that providers can relate to them, almost as if they were their own mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, etc. Employing similarity in this way can increase the credibility of the advertisement. It may also increase liking for the elders depicted, which in turn could reduce negative attitudes that providers may have toward LGBT people (19). Such advertisements can cause providers to relate to LGBT seniors as if they could be members of their own families and inspire them to strive for high standards of quality care for all patients. Finally, the media campaign should include images of doctors working successfully to provide culturally sensitive care to LGBT elders, as self-referencing would further strengthen provider’s perception that they, too, can provide competent care to a diversity of older individuals.

A media campaign like that described above aims to induce cognitive dissonance in providers, and this can be a powerful way of first changing behavior, even in the absence of immediate, more fundamental changes in attitude. For example, the campaign could influence a provider to more openly inquire about a patient’s sexual orientation or gender identity without making assumptions, thus creating a more welcoming environment for an LGBT elder to disclose important health information. Even if the provider’s personal attitude or opinion of LGBT people has not shifted, this small behavior change could have a positive impact on LGBT elders in the short term. Importantly, inducing cognitive dissonance has the potential to lead providers to adjust their attitudes and knowledge over time to better align with the new behaviors they have adopted.

Address Labeling and Safety Issues through Cultural Competency Training and Visibly Welcoming Healthcare Environments

Cultural competency training is needed for all health care professionals in order to address issues of labeling with regard to LGBT elders in health care settings and to raise awareness of the importance of creating safe spaces for LGBT adults to access care. It is critical for professionals to understand how making assumptions about sexual and/or gender identity, mislabeling LGBT elders, or denying LGBT seniors the opportunity to disclose information on their own terms or define their own familial ties can damage a patients’ sense of comfort, safety, and self-efficacy in accessing and receiving care (7). In order to promote safe environments, professionals must also be prepared to address homophobia and transphobia directed from one patient to another in settings such as assisted living and long-term care facilities, in addition to dealing with their own assumptions and biases about LGBT elders. Rarely, if ever, is this training provided to health care professionals or included as part of their formal and mandatory education. Administrators and providers need to be supported to deliver the highest quality care to all patients, and cultural competency training is a critical step toward meeting this need. By including such training as part of the educational and accreditation processes and by mandating ongoing education for administrators and providers, professionals will be better equipped to meet the continually evolving needs of this diverse population.

In addition to training, health care environments can be altered with an eye toward reducing inappropriate labeling and increasing safety for LGBT patients. Providers cannot assume that LGBT elders will know whether a particular health care setting is LGBT-friendly. Patients need visible evidence that they will be treated with respect and that their need for safety will not be compromised. Simple measures, such as targeting outreach to LGBT seniors, altering intake and assessment forms and electronic medical records to include open-ended questions about sexual orientation and gender identity, and displaying posters depicting LGBT seniors and their families of choice in health care settings can make a significant difference in demonstrating that services are inclusive (7).

Advocate for Policy Changes at Multiple Levels to Improve the Healthcare System for LGBT Elders

Policy changes are needed on a number of fronts in order to reduce health disparities among LGBT elders and create safe environments f0r accessing services. Ultimately, national and state level policies that afford LGBT seniors their civil rights and equal protection under the law will lead to the most wide-sweeping and fundamental changes in how LGBT elders access and use health care services. Currently, LGBT elders face numerous barriers that could be addressed by policy level changes. For example, LGBT couples are less likely to be eligible for the health care-related benefits afforded to couples that conform to traditional definitions of family. The Healthy People 2010 LGBT companion guide points out that “[w]ithout legal acknowledgement of the LGBT family unit, LGBT persons whose partners become medically incapacitated can be left out of medical decision-making, denied information on their partner’s condition, or even barred from seeing their partner. Since social and family support has been show to have a positive effect on health outcomes, denying that support is not in the best interest of the patient and creates a hardship for the partner” (2). Additionally, a “systemic bias in favor of heterosexuals” is inherent in many social benefit programs administered by the federal government, such as Medicare and Medicaid (1, 2, 7). The opportunities for policy reforms that would positively impact LGBT elders are wide-reaching, including: banning discrimination in accessing federal benefits on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, repealing the Defense of Marriage Act, granting LGBT partners the same rights as heterosexual couples, ensuring equal access to health insurance, and revising the Family and Medical Leave Act to include LGBT families of choice (20), to name just a few. By joining together to advocate for legislation that enhances LGBT rights with regard to health care, LGBT and public health advocates can significantly alter the landscape of the healthcare system in a way that reduces health disparities for this marginalized population. As a result, LGBT elders are likely to feel safer over time and to advocate for their own rights, knowing they have equal protection under the law. The bottom line is that policy reforms such as these would lead to improved health outcomes and quality of life for LGBT elders.

Policy change should also be supported at the institutional level. For example, public health and LGBT advocates should push for the development of minimum standards for LGBT elder care, with implementation support to health care facilities serving older adults. One way to approach this would be to support a number of institutions state-wide to adopt the minimum standards and for the state department of public health to implement a campaign that publicly recognizes institutions that are taking positive steps toward improving services for LGBT elders. This provides an incentive to institutions at the same time that it identifies LGBT-friendly institutions for elders and their families or caregivers. As more and more institutions adopt the standards, public health professionals can take advantage of the critical tipping point to advocate for state-wide policy mandating minimum standards of care for LGBT elders at institutions across the state. Fenway Community Health and the GLBT Health Access Aging Project serve as models for the provision of LGBT aging services, with experience in the domain of standards for effective care of LGBT seniors (21, 22). Administrators, providers, health care institutions, policy makers, and public health practitioners can look to these models for inspiration and practical guidance, and public health practitioners nationwide should seek to expand and build on these and other similar models.

Conclusion

As evidenced by the interventions suggested above, a multi-level approach is needed to affect large-scale, sustainable changes in LGBT elders’ access to culturally appropriate care. The social ecological model provides a useful framework for assessing barriers to care and designing multi-level interventions, as it takes into account the interrelated nature of multiple contextual forces influencing both individual and collective behavior (23). This model encourages health care and public health professionals to assess the issue and consider interventions at individual, interpersonal, community, institutional, and public policy levels in order to identify “high-impact leverage points” for change (24). Furthermore, this model is grounded in a “contextually oriented view of human health and well-being,” recognizing that “healthfulness is a multifaceted phenomenon encompassing physical health, emotional well-being, and social cohesion” (25). This model encourages system-wide assessment and changes and has the potential to result in more sustainable outcomes than those that target only individual behavior changes (23). The interventions suggested above to improve access and delivery of health care for LGBT elders span the multiple levels of the social ecological model, from trainings to promote individual behavior change among providers to organizational and public policies that lay the foundation for more equitable treatment of LGBT seniors both now and in the decades to come. By considering the multiple interventions possible and using the social ecological model to determine strategic, multi-level approaches to reducing health disparities, medical and public health practitioners can help shape health care settings into welcoming environments that support LGBT elders to age with equity and dignity.

References

1. National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute. Outing Age 2010: Public Policy Issues Affecting Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Elders. Washington, DC: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 2010.

2. Gay and Lesbian Medical Association. Healthy People 2010 Companion Document for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Health. San Francisco, CA: Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 2001.

3. Burbank, P. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender and Queer Elders: Issues of an Invisible Population. Keynote address to the Rhode Island Foundation Equaity Action’s LGBTQ Elder Summit. Providence, RI: 2008.

4. MetLife. Out and Aging: The MetLife Study of Lesbian and Gay Baby Boomers. Westport, CT: MetLife Mature Market Institute, 2006.

5. Movement Advancement Project. Advancing Transgender Equality. Denver, CO: Movement Advancement Project, 2009.

6. Movement Advancement Project (MAP) and Services and Advocacy for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Elders (SAGE). LGBT Older Adults and Inhospitable Health Care Environments. New York, NY: MAP and SAGE, 2010.

7. Funders for Lesbian and Gay Issues. Aging in Equity: LGBT Elders in America. Aging in Equity. New York, NY: Funders for Lesbian and Gay Issues, 2004.

8. Conron, K., Mimiaga, M., and Landers, S. A Population-Based Study of Sexual Orientation Identity and Gender Differences in Adult Health. American Journal of Public Health 2010; 100:1953-1960.

9. Janz, N., Champion, V., and Strecher, V. The Health Belief Model (pp. 45-66). In: Glanz, K., Rimer, B., and Lewis, F., eds. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2002.

10. Individual Health Behavior Theories (pp.35-49). In: Edberg, M. Essentials of Health Behavior: Social and Behavioral Theory in Public Health. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2007.

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12. Thomas, L. A Critical Feminist Perspective of the Health Belief Model: Implications for Nursing Theory, Research, Practice, and Education. Journal of Professional Nursing 1995; 11: 246-252.

13. Becker, H. Outsiders. New York, NY: Free Press, 1963.

14. Movement Advancement Project (MAP) and Services and Advocacy for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Elders (SAGE). Improving the Lives of LGBT Older Adults. New York, NY: MAP and SAGE, 2010.

15. Taylor, B. ‘Coming Out’ as a Life Transition: Homosexual Identity Formation and its Implications for Health Care Practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing 1999; 30: 520-525.

16. McDougall, G. Therapeutic Issues with Gay and Lesbian Elders (pp. 45-56). In: Brink, T.L. The Forgotten Aged: Ethnic, Psychiatric, Societal Minorities. Bringhamton, NY: Haworth Press, 1993.

17. Maslow, A.H. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review 1943; 50: 376-396.

18. Meyer, I. H. Why Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Public Health? American Journal of Public Health 2001; 91: 856-859.

19. Silvia, P.J. Deflecting reactance: The role of similarity in increasing compliance and reducing resistance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 2005; 27: 277-284.

20. Gardner, D. Practice with LGBT Elders. Aging Times 2010; Retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/CentersInitiatives/GeroEdCenter/GECPublications/agingtimes/36510/41380/41382.aspx.

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Stokols, D. Establishing and Maintaining Healthy Environments: Toward a Social Ecology of Hea

Celebrities and Anti Bullying Campaigns: Star Power May Not Guarantee Desired Results - Audrey Laimins

Bullying has always existed in one form or another among children and teens and has long been accepted as a part of growing up. (1) In recent years, the Internet and other forms of communication have opened up opportunities for more constant hostile and damaging bullying behavior, and the number of websites and organizations devoted to the prevention of bullying has increased dramatically. (2) A spate of recent suicides has brought the media spotlight on this issue, and many celebrities have joined existing campaigns to speak out against bullying. The latest star to step forward, Britney Spears, will join President Obama as part of a new anti bullying campaign launched by the White House. (3) Although celebrity advocacy holds great potential to raise awareness and encourage adolescents to join in the efforts, it remains to be seen whether celebrity support can affect significant change. Those designing the campaigns must exercise caution and ensure that the celebrity presence will work towards the intentions of the campaign. Furthermore, the campaign’s premise must be sound. A celebrity cannot make an ill conceived idea work. This was illustrated in the anti-bullying wristband scheme attempted in England in 2004. The campaign, championed by David Beckham and Bono, backfired when wristbands meant to signify commitment to the cause instead made those children wearing the bands targets for more bullying. (4)


It is critical to understand the mechanics of bullying interactions in order to appropriately design interventions (16) and to best utilize celebrity support to benefit these interventions. In most bullying situations, there are three potential actors: the bully, the victim and the bystanders. (5) Bullies bully because they want to gain status among their peers. Two needs underlie their drive for status: a need for popularity and a need for domination. Victims are usually social outsiders who are rejected by the established peer group, and often lack social support from others. (6) Bystanders can be of two types: the outsiders, who don’t participate in bullying, and those who “assist” and reinforce by onlooking and laughing. Bystanders rarely intervene on behalf of the victim. (5)

There is an unequal relationship between the bully and the victim, with the balance of power belonging to the bully. (16) The bystanders, however, by strength in numbers, have the potential to disrupt this monopoly of power by showing lack of support for the bully’s behavior and marginalizing him/her from their peer group. Studies suggest the bully intervention efforts should not focus on the individual bully or victim alone, but on the dynamics of the peer group, and pro social norms must be established for the whole peer group. (5)

It is unlikely that bullies will want to change their behavior and relinquish control merely by being told to stop. Studies in American schools have shown that a zero tolerance policy is ineffective in eliminating bullying. (7) Victims would most likely want to change the balance of power, but have few effective means by which to accomplish this. Bystanders, however, when acting as a cohesive group, can have significant capability to affect change. The challenge is to motivate adolescents who are neither bullies nor victims to care enough about the issues to educate themselves via websites or PSAs about how they can make a difference. Celebrities could provide a powerful impetus by galvanizing them to care. Celebrities can also encourage victims to seek out information to find support and guidance. Of utmost importance is that celebrity association does not ultimately work against the cause.

This paper will illustrate how celebrities can be misused in three applications of social theory. Some misapplications are possibly due to the assumption that merely the fact that they are celebrities will make the campaign or message successful, while in other cases they may be due to a misunderstanding of the dynamics of bullying and how they should be addressed.


ADVERTISING THEORY

Marketers have been using celebrities in commercials, print ads and PSAs for years because done properly, it works. Celebrities get the viewer’s attention, but whether they can influence the viewer’s behavior depends on whether the viewer trusts and believes their message.

Advertising theory is based on three premises, and advertising is successful only if all three are properly applied. (8)
1) PROMISE: some benefit must be promised for viewers
2) SUPPORT: evidence must be provided that the promise is true, and the viewers must be able to self reference to this evidence. In other words, the ad must present someone SIMILAR to themselves experiencing the aspirations.
3) CORE VALUES: promise and support are surrounded by core values, which have universal emotional appeal, such as freedom, happiness, love, belonging, justice.

Public health campaigns using celebrities usually deliver a clear message regarding promise and core values, but might falter when presenting support. Establishing a connection with viewers to whom they are delivering this message is critical.

It Gets Better is a YouTube project directed towards LGBT teens who are dealing with social isolation, depression and bullying, and who may be contemplating suicide. Its message (it gets better) and core values (acceptance, justice, freedom) are clear. The project solicits contributions from anyone with a YouTube account who wants to share their experiences. Thousands of ordinary people have posted personal testimonies, but more recently celebrities and public figures are participating as well, including Ellen DeGeneres, Kesha, Adam Lambert, Anne Hathaway and political figures Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton and Nancy Pelosi. (9) Two potential barriers to self referencing exist for LGBT youth observing these celebrity videos:
1) Total aversion to non LGBT celebrities, especially those from an older generation, whom LGBT youth might judge to be incapable of understanding their plight. Obama states, “I don’t know what it’s like to be picked on for being gay..”, immediately distancing himself from LGBT youth. Nancy Pelosi tries a different approach. “As a mother and a grandmother, I want to tell you that a better tomorrow exists.” It is unclear what connection she is trying to establish. Even young popular celebrities might not be able to create an alliance. Kim Kardashian explains how she is bullied on the Internet. “I can read so many positive comments, but the only thing that stands out is one negative comment.” LGBT youth who are teased and bullied every day and never receive ANY positive comments would have little empathy for Kim.
2) Even LGBT celebrities may not be able to establish a link with some youth. Bullied teens struggle with insecurity and low self esteem and often feel inadequate and incapable. They may see such celebrities as Ellen DeGeneres, Neil Patrick Harris and Adam Lambert as funny, smart, talented or attractive, and conclude that of course it got better for them, they had something going for them.

In another antibullying campaign, Demi Lovato is presented in a YouTube video as the spokesperson of PACER’s Teens Against Bullying in an attempt to draw kids and teens to their website, which has information to help students, parents and educators stop bullying. (10) Demi states, “Believe it or not, I was bullied in school”. Why believe it or not? Is it because she is so talented or attractive? Demi never explains why or about what she was bullied, only that words were used to hurt her and she still hasn’t forgotten. It is difficult to imagine how a teen who is being verbally or physically abused every day will be able to self reference to Demi, or feel that she might have anything to offer in the way of help. Although the website contains valuable information that could be of help to a bullied teen, Demi’s message will not likely inspire many to pursue the matter.


SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory postulates that people learn from one another via observation, imitation and modeling. “Most human behavior is learned observationally during modeling and from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed.” (11) This theory seems especially applicable in understanding and influencing behavior in adolescents, for whom peer acceptance and inclusion, which are often based on conformity in behavior, are of utmost importance. One could argue that teen celebrities could be influential in affecting adolescent behavior by presenting and modeling a certain conduct or demeanor. In order to effectively modify behavior, however, it is critical that the celebrity deliver an appropriate message in a compelling manner.

Demi Lovato’s PSA on YouTube is an appeal to teens to visit the Teens Against Bullying website to learn how they can help stop bullying. (10) The appeal includes core values of belonging, acceptance, freedom and justice. “Let’s make a difference because together we’re powerful. The end of bullying begins with you, so let’s all join the movement to end bullying”. What’s lacking in this message is an understanding for the viewers of HOW they can make a difference. It is possible that the victims of bullying might access the website in search of further help and support. However, it is unlikely that those viewers with the real potential to affect change, the bystanders, will be inspired by this vague message since modeling behavior is never introduced, and as a result the viewers might perceive any efforts on their part as futile.

In another attempt at behavior modeling, Demi claims that “bullying is never OK” while the words are displayed in bold graphics on the screen. This statement is obvious to the point of being insulting, as everyone knows that bullying is not OK, just as they know that stealing and lying are not OK. It does not serve to educate or enlighten adolescents regarding the HOW of preventing bullying behavior.

In Justin Bieber’s ad for It Gets Better, he appears insecure, uncertain and timid, looking away from the camera several times. “There’s nothing cool about being a bully. If you’re getting bullied, make sure to tell someone and, you know, it gets better. If you’re a bystander, make sure to step in and, you know, help out.” (12) In this 20 second spot, not only does he fail to be persuasive in the delivery of his message, he almost comes across as someone who might be intimidated by a bully. Despite his celebrity status, he lacks the ability to demonstrate and model appropriate behavior and attitude.


FRAMING

Framing in social theory refers to the presentation or packaging of an issue or idea in such a way as to encourage certain interpretations and to discourage others. In other words, how an issue is framed can dictate people’s behavior or beliefs without their consciously choosing such behavior or beliefs. (13) If celebrities are to deliver messages to the public, it is essential that their influence is utilized in a well conceived, properly framed manner.

Bullies bully to satisfy a need for popularity and a need for domination. Whenever bystanders look on or laugh during bullying, the bully’s popularity is enhanced and the behavior is reinforced. (14) Whenever a victim stays home from school to avoid bullying, the bully’s power is established and the behavior is reinforced. Celebrity messages must be carefully crafted in order to prevent reinforcing such perception.

Demi Lovato explains that for her, “the bullying was so bad that I left school and was home schooled. But not everyone has that choice.” It would appear she is suggesting that home schooling was a fortunate consequence for her, which frames the issue as one in which bullies can exert their power, and it is easier to succumb to that power. She goes on to say, “160,000 teens stay home from school every day to avoid being bullied”. Once again, the way this fact is framed the victimization has already occurred, the bullies still maintain power, and the victims will continue to be victims. The perception for viewers is that inevitably, this is the unavoidable end result, and that Demi was lucky to be able to choose to be schooled at home. Even the slogan “It Gets Better” frames bullying in a light that supports the bully/victim dynamic. Yes, it might get better at some unknown time in the future, but in the meantime victims have little recourse but to tolerate the abusive behavior.


For any ad campaign or PSA to be successful, both its message and target audience must be clear and appropriate. In addition, any modeling that is presented must be clear and it must be apparent for whom the modeling behavior is intended; in this case, the victim, the bully, or the bystander. Even if a public health campaign has a clear message and target audience, celebrity presence may actually interfere with its goal. Because celebrities have a tremendous capacity to capture the attention of a teen audience, it is even more critical that what they say and how they say it will serve the purpose and intentions of the campaign.











RECOMMENDATIONS

Most anti bullying campaigns and their PSAs are focused on one of two goals: 1) to offer help to victims of bullying, and 2) to try to eliminate or decrease the incidence of bullying. The first goal is straightforward, and possibly easier to achieve in that both message and intended recipient of that message are clear. Victims know who they are, and once made aware of the opportunity to receive support can choose to seek help and support. Using celebrities to draw attention to a cause serves to augment the number of victims who pay attention to the campaign, and as long as the victims are able to self reference to the celebrities, it is very likely their message will be heard and processed.

The second goal presents more of a challenge and is much more complex. Since in most bullying scenarios there are three involved parties (bully, victim, bystanders), there are three potential audiences for an anti bullying campaign, each with a different reason for their behavior within this scenario. It is unlikely that appealing to bullies to stop their behavior will be successful, as it may result in psychological reactance and an increase in said behavior. The complexity of risk factors that can lead to bullying behavior, including social, environmental, family and prior experiences, make it a complicated task to attempt to affect change. (15)

It might be possible to empower victims and encourage them to stand up to bullies, and while this would improve the situation for the victim, the bully would seek out another victim and continue the aggressive behavior. Studies have shown that intervention efforts should not focus on the individual bully or victim, but on the dynamics of the peer group. (5)

The only real potential to significantly decrease the incidence of bullying is to change the dynamics of the situation, and those who potentially hold the power to do so are the peer group. Peers must understand WHY bullies bully, and then be educated as to HOW they can change the balance of power and remove control of the situation from the bully. 85% of bullying behavior happens for the benefit of an audience. (2) Of utmost importance is that peer groups choose not to support bullies and their undesirable behavior, but instead to marginalize them from the group and give support to the victims instead. Anti bullying campaigns can use celebrities not only to draw attention to their cause, but as educators and role models to encourage peers to get involved.

One recurring weakness of celebrity use in anti bullying campaigns previously discussed is that once the celebrity had drawn attention to their ad/PSA, it was unclear to whom they were delivering their message or more basically, what the message was. In situations where it would have been appropriate and necessary to create a connection with victims, it was more likely they would draw the attention of bystanders/peer groups. In PSAs in which there was potential to exhibit desirable modeling behavior to peer groups, the message was framed in such a way that it would seem that attempting to put an end to bullying would be futile.

Within the context of awareness of message and recipient, certain social theories may lend themselves better to certain audiences. When applying advertising theory to appeal to victims, celebrities must successfully establish a connection in order to be able to convincingly deliver a promise and surround this promise with core values. When the appeal is to peer groups, the connection with celebrities occurs much more readily, and emphasis can be placed on core values of acceptance, fairness, love and community. Although social learning theory can be valuable for victims to better understand bullies and perhaps help improve their confidence levels, it is critical that it is used when addressing peer groups and to utilize celebrities to demonstrate effective behavior. Celebrities must frame their message appropriately in order to deliver a fitting message.


ADVERTISING THEORY

Celebrities hold great potential to draw attention to any public health campaign ad or PSA. Their ability to deliver a promise or convey the core values of that campaign rarely comes into question. Where they may fall short is in providing support for that promise by failing to create an empathetic connection with viewers or by failing to provide a clear purpose and solution.

When appealing to victims, it is imperative that celebrities personalize the issue. If they themselves were victims of bullying at some stage in their lives, they must give specific reasons or tell personal stories. They must be persuasive and trustworthy. If appealing to a certain segment of the population (ie LGBT), they should introduce a close friend/family member who is LGBT and have them relate their story. The stories must be familiar and strike a chord with viewers to fully gain their trust and establish credence.

Self referencing is more likely to occur when celebrities address their message to peer groups. Since peers are not as emotionally fragile and vulnerable as victims, they will not attempt to personalize the issue but rather will be drawn to the celebrity’s narrative and be willing to hear the message. For this audience, the message would probably be more powerful from a celebrity than from an average person. With such an attentive crowd, it is imperative that the celebrity functions as an educator. It must be clear that the message is aimed at bystanders, and that the education focuses on understanding the REASON for bullying behavior in order to comprehend and implement the most appropriate way to manage a bullying situation. “Only you, as a unified group, can make a difference”, “don’t enable their behavior by watching, disable their behavior by not approving”, be cool and stand together against bullies”, “don’t give them what they want, marginalize them”. These concepts can be turned into catchy slogans that celebrities reinforce in public appearances or in ads. Given appropriate material with which to work, celebrities have the wherewithal to affect significant behavior changes in peers’ response to bully behavior.



SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The use of celebrities to apply social learning theory could have significant positive results in efforts to stop bullying. Celebrities could not only educate teens but model specific behaviors and attitudes that they could apply when confronted with a bullying situation. In PSAs, and ads, celebrities could enlighten viewers by presenting facts in a precise and unambiguous manner. “Did you know that the majority of bullying behavior happens for the benefit of an audience?” “Bullies are desperate to be popular, and as a result do desperate things”. TV shows which already have a captive preteen/teen audience on Disney Channel, Nickelodeon (ICarly, Hannah Montana, etc) could incorporate anti bullying themes into their shows. Many teen celebrities have already become involved in campaigns and could expand on those efforts by encouraging networks to devote some shows to these themes.

One possible scenario could portray a bullying situation in a school playground in which a crowd has gathered. As the bully taunts and jeers at his victim, onlookers become noticeably more and more uncomfortable until one child leaves the crowd and stands at the victim’s side. Soon another joins him, and as more kids join and face the bully, his insults become quieter and less frequent, until finally when overwhelmed by the unified group confronting him, he meekly turns and walks away. The behavior modeled, while demonstrating effective behavior to non victims in managing such situations, would also be beneficial to victims by demonstrating that their situation is not necessarily hopeless and that bullies are not necessarily invincible.

However, the show must be realistic and not ridiculously optimistic in order to have an impact. Overly happy endings will not be effective. The victim can’t suddenly become popular and be effortlessly absorbed into the peer group, as the complexities of adolescent social dynamics are never so easily resolved. What must be made clear is that support and compassion for the victim will take from the bully that which he wants most: power and acceptance. Equally as important is to emphasize that bullies are not necessarily evil people as they may be acting out due to problems in their own lives. It is not the bullies but their behavior that must be rejected.


FRAMING

Proper framing can be challenging to define, and the difference between poor framing and effective framing can be subtle, often a matter of a slight change in word choice. Because celebrities have the potential to readily draw attention to their causes and often have a mindful audience, it is even more crucial that their words are carefully and properly chosen. While spontaneity and authenticity are important, celebrities should be prepped about certain phrasing or concepts that should be part of their message. Demi Lovato’s PSA could be moderately rephrased to create a totally different framing effect. “You can help the 160,000 kids that stay home from school every day to feel good about coming to school.” “I was bullied so badly that I chose to be home schooled. I wish I hadn’t allowed them to intimidate me”.


Celebrities have unmistakable drawing power in capturing the attention of an audience, especially adolescents. Moreover, they hold the potential to significantly influence the attitudes and behaviors of an adolescent audience. As illustrated in this paper, it is critical that those designing anti bullying campaigns not only fully understand the dynamics of bullying, but also appropriately apply marketing theory and social learning theory in a properly framed message in order to fully take advantage of the celebrity status in the most effective way possible.










REFERENCES

1 Bullying: Causes, consequences, and practical advice. Available at:
http://www.massgeneral.org/children/adolscenthealth/articles/aa_bullies.aspx.
2 Behind Bullying: Why Kids Are So Cruel. Live Science. Available at:
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3 Britney Spears Joins President Obama’s Anti-Bullying Campaign – Music, Celebrity, Artist News. MTV. Available at:
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8 Siegel, Michael MD. “Advertising and Marketing Theory”. Boston University School of Public Health, SB 721. Boston, MA. 3 March 2011.
9 It Gets Better Project. Available at: http://www.itgetsbetter.org.
10 You Tube – Demi Lovato Commercial for National Bullying Prevention Week.
Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7o3onOJEOE.
11 Bandura, A. A Social Leaning Theory. New York: General Learning Press, 1977.
12 You Tube – Justin Bieber on Ellen- Bullying (it gets better). Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUJ4ovrcqY.
13 Siegel, Michael MD. “Advertising and Marketing Theory”. Boston University School of Public Health, SB 721. Boston, MA. 24 March, 2011.
14 Allen, Joseph P., Maryfrances R. Porter, F. Christy McFarland, Penny Marsh, and Kathleen Boykin McElhaney. 2005. “The Two Faces of Adolescents’ Success With Peers: Adolescent Popularity, Social Adaptation, and Deviant Behavior.” Child development 76 (3): 747-760. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00875.x.
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